From: Igor Stoppa <igor.stoppa@huawei.com>
To: <jglisse@redhat.com>, <keescook@chromium.org>,
<mhocko@kernel.org>, <labbott@redhat.com>, <hch@infradead.org>,
<willy@infradead.org>
Cc: <cl@linux.com>, <linux-security-module@vger.kernel.org>,
<linux-mm@kvack.org>, <linux-kernel@vger.kernel.org>,
<kernel-hardening@lists.openwall.com>,
Igor Stoppa <igor.stoppa@huawei.com>
Subject: [kernel-hardening] [RFC PATCH v11 0/6] mm: security: ro protection for dynamic data
Date: Wed, 24 Jan 2018 19:56:25 +0200 [thread overview]
Message-ID: <20180124175631.22925-1-igor.stoppa@huawei.com> (raw)
This patch-set introduces the possibility of protecting memory that has
been allocated dynamically.
The memory is managed in pools: when a memory pool is turned into R/O,
all the memory that is part of it, will become R/O.
A R/O pool can be destroyed, to recover its memory, but it cannot be
turned back into R/W mode.
This is intentional. This feature is meant for data that doesn't need
further modifications after initialization.
However the data might need to be released, for example as part of module
unloading.
To do this, the memory must first be freed, then the pool can be destroyed.
An example is provided, in the form of self-testing.
Changes since the v10 version:
Initially I tried to provide support for hardening the LSM hooks, but the
LSM code was too much in a flux to have some chance to be merged.
Several drop-in replacement for kmalloc based functions, for example
kzalloc.
>From this perspective I have also modified genalloc, to make its free
functionality follow more closely the kfree, which doesn't need to be told
the size of the allocation being released. This was sent out for review
twice, but it has not received any feedback, so far.
Also genalloc now comes with self-testing.
The latest can be found also here:
https://www.spinics.net/lists/kernel/msg2696152.html
The need to integrate with hardened user copy has driven an optimization
in the management of vmap_areas, where each struct page in a vmalloc area
has a reference to it, saving the search through the various areas.
I was planning - and can still do it - to provide hardening for some IMA
data, but in the meanwhile it seems that the XFS developers might be
interested in htis functionality:
http://www.openwall.com/lists/kernel-hardening/2018/01/24/1
So I'm sending it out as preview.
Igor Stoppa (6):
genalloc: track beginning of allocations
genalloc: selftest
struct page: add field for vm_struct
Protectable Memory
Documentation for Pmalloc
Pmalloc: self-test
Documentation/core-api/pmalloc.txt | 104 ++++++++
include/linux/genalloc-selftest.h | 30 +++
include/linux/genalloc.h | 6 +-
include/linux/mm_types.h | 1 +
include/linux/pmalloc.h | 215 ++++++++++++++++
include/linux/vmalloc.h | 1 +
init/main.c | 2 +
lib/Kconfig | 15 ++
lib/Makefile | 1 +
lib/genalloc-selftest.c | 402 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
lib/genalloc.c | 444 +++++++++++++++++++++----------
mm/Kconfig | 7 +
mm/Makefile | 2 +
mm/pmalloc-selftest.c | 65 +++++
mm/pmalloc-selftest.h | 30 +++
mm/pmalloc.c | 516 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
mm/usercopy.c | 25 +-
mm/vmalloc.c | 18 +-
18 files changed, 1744 insertions(+), 140 deletions(-)
create mode 100644 Documentation/core-api/pmalloc.txt
create mode 100644 include/linux/genalloc-selftest.h
create mode 100644 include/linux/pmalloc.h
create mode 100644 lib/genalloc-selftest.c
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc-selftest.c
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc-selftest.h
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc.c
--
2.9.3
WARNING: multiple messages have this Message-ID (diff)
From: igor.stoppa@huawei.com (Igor Stoppa)
To: linux-security-module@vger.kernel.org
Subject: [RFC PATCH v11 0/6] mm: security: ro protection for dynamic data
Date: Wed, 24 Jan 2018 19:56:25 +0200 [thread overview]
Message-ID: <20180124175631.22925-1-igor.stoppa@huawei.com> (raw)
This patch-set introduces the possibility of protecting memory that has
been allocated dynamically.
The memory is managed in pools: when a memory pool is turned into R/O,
all the memory that is part of it, will become R/O.
A R/O pool can be destroyed, to recover its memory, but it cannot be
turned back into R/W mode.
This is intentional. This feature is meant for data that doesn't need
further modifications after initialization.
However the data might need to be released, for example as part of module
unloading.
To do this, the memory must first be freed, then the pool can be destroyed.
An example is provided, in the form of self-testing.
Changes since the v10 version:
Initially I tried to provide support for hardening the LSM hooks, but the
LSM code was too much in a flux to have some chance to be merged.
Several drop-in replacement for kmalloc based functions, for example
kzalloc.
>From this perspective I have also modified genalloc, to make its free
functionality follow more closely the kfree, which doesn't need to be told
the size of the allocation being released. This was sent out for review
twice, but it has not received any feedback, so far.
Also genalloc now comes with self-testing.
The latest can be found also here:
https://www.spinics.net/lists/kernel/msg2696152.html
The need to integrate with hardened user copy has driven an optimization
in the management of vmap_areas, where each struct page in a vmalloc area
has a reference to it, saving the search through the various areas.
I was planning - and can still do it - to provide hardening for some IMA
data, but in the meanwhile it seems that the XFS developers might be
interested in htis functionality:
http://www.openwall.com/lists/kernel-hardening/2018/01/24/1
So I'm sending it out as preview.
Igor Stoppa (6):
genalloc: track beginning of allocations
genalloc: selftest
struct page: add field for vm_struct
Protectable Memory
Documentation for Pmalloc
Pmalloc: self-test
Documentation/core-api/pmalloc.txt | 104 ++++++++
include/linux/genalloc-selftest.h | 30 +++
include/linux/genalloc.h | 6 +-
include/linux/mm_types.h | 1 +
include/linux/pmalloc.h | 215 ++++++++++++++++
include/linux/vmalloc.h | 1 +
init/main.c | 2 +
lib/Kconfig | 15 ++
lib/Makefile | 1 +
lib/genalloc-selftest.c | 402 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
lib/genalloc.c | 444 +++++++++++++++++++++----------
mm/Kconfig | 7 +
mm/Makefile | 2 +
mm/pmalloc-selftest.c | 65 +++++
mm/pmalloc-selftest.h | 30 +++
mm/pmalloc.c | 516 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
mm/usercopy.c | 25 +-
mm/vmalloc.c | 18 +-
18 files changed, 1744 insertions(+), 140 deletions(-)
create mode 100644 Documentation/core-api/pmalloc.txt
create mode 100644 include/linux/genalloc-selftest.h
create mode 100644 include/linux/pmalloc.h
create mode 100644 lib/genalloc-selftest.c
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc-selftest.c
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc-selftest.h
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc.c
--
2.9.3
--
To unsubscribe from this list: send the line "unsubscribe linux-security-module" in
the body of a message to majordomo at vger.kernel.org
More majordomo info at http://vger.kernel.org/majordomo-info.html
WARNING: multiple messages have this Message-ID (diff)
From: Igor Stoppa <igor.stoppa@huawei.com>
To: jglisse@redhat.com, keescook@chromium.org, mhocko@kernel.org,
labbott@redhat.com, hch@infradead.org, willy@infradead.org
Cc: cl@linux.com, linux-security-module@vger.kernel.org,
linux-mm@kvack.org, linux-kernel@vger.kernel.org,
kernel-hardening@lists.openwall.com,
Igor Stoppa <igor.stoppa@huawei.com>
Subject: [RFC PATCH v11 0/6] mm: security: ro protection for dynamic data
Date: Wed, 24 Jan 2018 19:56:25 +0200 [thread overview]
Message-ID: <20180124175631.22925-1-igor.stoppa@huawei.com> (raw)
This patch-set introduces the possibility of protecting memory that has
been allocated dynamically.
The memory is managed in pools: when a memory pool is turned into R/O,
all the memory that is part of it, will become R/O.
A R/O pool can be destroyed, to recover its memory, but it cannot be
turned back into R/W mode.
This is intentional. This feature is meant for data that doesn't need
further modifications after initialization.
However the data might need to be released, for example as part of module
unloading.
To do this, the memory must first be freed, then the pool can be destroyed.
An example is provided, in the form of self-testing.
Changes since the v10 version:
Initially I tried to provide support for hardening the LSM hooks, but the
LSM code was too much in a flux to have some chance to be merged.
Several drop-in replacement for kmalloc based functions, for example
kzalloc.
>From this perspective I have also modified genalloc, to make its free
functionality follow more closely the kfree, which doesn't need to be told
the size of the allocation being released. This was sent out for review
twice, but it has not received any feedback, so far.
Also genalloc now comes with self-testing.
The latest can be found also here:
https://www.spinics.net/lists/kernel/msg2696152.html
The need to integrate with hardened user copy has driven an optimization
in the management of vmap_areas, where each struct page in a vmalloc area
has a reference to it, saving the search through the various areas.
I was planning - and can still do it - to provide hardening for some IMA
data, but in the meanwhile it seems that the XFS developers might be
interested in htis functionality:
http://www.openwall.com/lists/kernel-hardening/2018/01/24/1
So I'm sending it out as preview.
Igor Stoppa (6):
genalloc: track beginning of allocations
genalloc: selftest
struct page: add field for vm_struct
Protectable Memory
Documentation for Pmalloc
Pmalloc: self-test
Documentation/core-api/pmalloc.txt | 104 ++++++++
include/linux/genalloc-selftest.h | 30 +++
include/linux/genalloc.h | 6 +-
include/linux/mm_types.h | 1 +
include/linux/pmalloc.h | 215 ++++++++++++++++
include/linux/vmalloc.h | 1 +
init/main.c | 2 +
lib/Kconfig | 15 ++
lib/Makefile | 1 +
lib/genalloc-selftest.c | 402 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
lib/genalloc.c | 444 +++++++++++++++++++++----------
mm/Kconfig | 7 +
mm/Makefile | 2 +
mm/pmalloc-selftest.c | 65 +++++
mm/pmalloc-selftest.h | 30 +++
mm/pmalloc.c | 516 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
mm/usercopy.c | 25 +-
mm/vmalloc.c | 18 +-
18 files changed, 1744 insertions(+), 140 deletions(-)
create mode 100644 Documentation/core-api/pmalloc.txt
create mode 100644 include/linux/genalloc-selftest.h
create mode 100644 include/linux/pmalloc.h
create mode 100644 lib/genalloc-selftest.c
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc-selftest.c
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc-selftest.h
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc.c
--
2.9.3
--
To unsubscribe, send a message with 'unsubscribe linux-mm' in
the body to majordomo@kvack.org. For more info on Linux MM,
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WARNING: multiple messages have this Message-ID (diff)
From: Igor Stoppa <igor.stoppa@huawei.com>
To: jglisse@redhat.com, keescook@chromium.org, mhocko@kernel.org,
labbott@redhat.com, hch@infradead.org, willy@infradead.org
Cc: cl@linux.com, linux-security-module@vger.kernel.org,
linux-mm@kvack.org, linux-kernel@vger.kernel.org,
kernel-hardening@lists.openwall.com,
Igor Stoppa <igor.stoppa@huawei.com>
Subject: [kernel-hardening] [RFC PATCH v11 0/6] mm: security: ro protection for dynamic data
Date: Wed, 24 Jan 2018 19:56:25 +0200 [thread overview]
Message-ID: <20180124175631.22925-1-igor.stoppa@huawei.com> (raw)
This patch-set introduces the possibility of protecting memory that has
been allocated dynamically.
The memory is managed in pools: when a memory pool is turned into R/O,
all the memory that is part of it, will become R/O.
A R/O pool can be destroyed, to recover its memory, but it cannot be
turned back into R/W mode.
This is intentional. This feature is meant for data that doesn't need
further modifications after initialization.
However the data might need to be released, for example as part of module
unloading.
To do this, the memory must first be freed, then the pool can be destroyed.
An example is provided, in the form of self-testing.
Changes since the v10 version:
Initially I tried to provide support for hardening the LSM hooks, but the
LSM code was too much in a flux to have some chance to be merged.
Several drop-in replacement for kmalloc based functions, for example
kzalloc.
>From this perspective I have also modified genalloc, to make its free
functionality follow more closely the kfree, which doesn't need to be told
the size of the allocation being released. This was sent out for review
twice, but it has not received any feedback, so far.
Also genalloc now comes with self-testing.
The latest can be found also here:
https://www.spinics.net/lists/kernel/msg2696152.html
The need to integrate with hardened user copy has driven an optimization
in the management of vmap_areas, where each struct page in a vmalloc area
has a reference to it, saving the search through the various areas.
I was planning - and can still do it - to provide hardening for some IMA
data, but in the meanwhile it seems that the XFS developers might be
interested in htis functionality:
http://www.openwall.com/lists/kernel-hardening/2018/01/24/1
So I'm sending it out as preview.
Igor Stoppa (6):
genalloc: track beginning of allocations
genalloc: selftest
struct page: add field for vm_struct
Protectable Memory
Documentation for Pmalloc
Pmalloc: self-test
Documentation/core-api/pmalloc.txt | 104 ++++++++
include/linux/genalloc-selftest.h | 30 +++
include/linux/genalloc.h | 6 +-
include/linux/mm_types.h | 1 +
include/linux/pmalloc.h | 215 ++++++++++++++++
include/linux/vmalloc.h | 1 +
init/main.c | 2 +
lib/Kconfig | 15 ++
lib/Makefile | 1 +
lib/genalloc-selftest.c | 402 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
lib/genalloc.c | 444 +++++++++++++++++++++----------
mm/Kconfig | 7 +
mm/Makefile | 2 +
mm/pmalloc-selftest.c | 65 +++++
mm/pmalloc-selftest.h | 30 +++
mm/pmalloc.c | 516 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
mm/usercopy.c | 25 +-
mm/vmalloc.c | 18 +-
18 files changed, 1744 insertions(+), 140 deletions(-)
create mode 100644 Documentation/core-api/pmalloc.txt
create mode 100644 include/linux/genalloc-selftest.h
create mode 100644 include/linux/pmalloc.h
create mode 100644 lib/genalloc-selftest.c
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc-selftest.c
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc-selftest.h
create mode 100644 mm/pmalloc.c
--
2.9.3
next reply other threads:[~2018-01-24 17:56 UTC|newest]
Thread overview: 171+ messages / expand[flat|nested] mbox.gz Atom feed top
2018-01-24 17:56 Igor Stoppa [this message]
2018-01-24 17:56 ` [kernel-hardening] [RFC PATCH v11 0/6] mm: security: ro protection for dynamic data Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` [kernel-hardening] [PATCH 1/6] genalloc: track beginning of allocations Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` [kernel-hardening] [PATCH 2/6] genalloc: selftest Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` [kernel-hardening] [PATCH 3/6] struct page: add field for vm_struct Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` [kernel-hardening] [PATCH 4/6] Protectable Memory Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 19:10 ` [kernel-hardening] " Jann Horn
2018-01-24 19:10 ` Jann Horn
2018-01-24 19:10 ` Jann Horn
2018-01-25 11:59 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-25 11:59 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-25 11:59 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-25 11:59 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-25 15:14 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-01-25 15:14 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-01-25 15:14 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-01-25 15:38 ` Jerome Glisse
2018-01-25 15:38 ` Jerome Glisse
2018-01-25 15:38 ` Jerome Glisse
2018-01-26 12:28 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 12:28 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 12:28 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 16:36 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-01-26 16:36 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-01-26 16:36 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-01-30 13:46 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-30 13:46 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-30 13:46 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 5:35 ` Matthew Wilcox
2018-01-26 5:35 ` Matthew Wilcox
2018-01-26 5:35 ` Matthew Wilcox
2018-01-26 11:46 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 11:46 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 11:46 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 11:46 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-02 18:39 ` Christopher Lameter
2018-02-02 18:39 ` Christopher Lameter
2018-02-02 18:39 ` Christopher Lameter
2018-02-03 15:38 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 15:38 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 15:38 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 15:38 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 19:57 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 19:57 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 19:57 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 19:57 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 20:12 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-02-03 20:12 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-02-03 20:12 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-02-03 20:32 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 20:32 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 20:32 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-03 22:29 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-02-03 22:29 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-02-03 22:29 ` Boris Lukashev
2018-02-04 15:05 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-04 15:05 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-04 15:05 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-12 23:27 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-12 23:27 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-12 23:27 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-13 0:40 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-13 0:40 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-13 0:40 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-13 1:25 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-13 1:25 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-13 1:25 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-13 3:39 ` Jann Horn
2018-02-13 3:39 ` Jann Horn
2018-02-13 3:39 ` Jann Horn
2018-02-13 16:09 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-13 16:09 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-13 16:09 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-13 21:43 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-13 21:43 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-13 21:43 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:06 ` arm64 physmap (was Re: [kernel-hardening] [PATCH 4/6] Protectable Memory) Laura Abbott
2018-02-14 19:06 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-14 19:06 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-14 19:06 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-14 19:28 ` Ard Biesheuvel
2018-02-14 19:28 ` Ard Biesheuvel
2018-02-14 19:28 ` Ard Biesheuvel
2018-02-14 19:28 ` Ard Biesheuvel
2018-02-14 20:13 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-14 20:13 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-14 20:13 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-14 20:13 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-14 19:29 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:29 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:29 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:29 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:35 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:35 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:35 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:35 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-20 16:28 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-20 16:28 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-20 16:28 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-20 16:28 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-21 22:22 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-21 22:22 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-21 22:22 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-21 22:22 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:48 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:48 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:48 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 19:48 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 22:13 ` Tycho Andersen
2018-02-14 22:13 ` Tycho Andersen
2018-02-14 22:13 ` Tycho Andersen
2018-02-14 22:13 ` Tycho Andersen
2018-02-14 22:27 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 22:27 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 22:27 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-14 22:27 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-13 15:20 ` [kernel-hardening] [PATCH 4/6] Protectable Memory Igor Stoppa
2018-02-13 15:20 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-13 15:20 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-13 15:20 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-13 15:20 ` [kernel-hardening] " Igor Stoppa
[not found] ` <5a83024c.64369d0a.a1e94.cdd6SMTPIN_ADDED_BROKEN@mx.google.com>
2018-02-13 18:10 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-13 18:10 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-13 18:10 ` Laura Abbott
2018-02-20 17:16 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-20 17:16 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-20 17:16 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-21 22:37 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-21 22:37 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-21 22:37 ` Kees Cook
2018-02-05 15:40 ` Christopher Lameter
2018-02-05 15:40 ` Christopher Lameter
2018-02-05 15:40 ` Christopher Lameter
2018-02-09 11:17 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-09 11:17 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-09 11:17 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-02-09 11:17 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 19:41 ` [kernel-hardening] " Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 19:41 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 19:41 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-26 19:41 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` [kernel-hardening] [PATCH 5/6] Documentation for Pmalloc Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 19:14 ` [kernel-hardening] " Ralph Campbell
2018-01-24 19:14 ` Ralph Campbell
2018-01-24 19:14 ` Ralph Campbell
2018-01-24 19:14 ` Ralph Campbell
2018-01-25 7:53 ` [kernel-hardening] " Igor Stoppa
2018-01-25 7:53 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-25 7:53 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-25 7:53 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` [kernel-hardening] [PATCH 6/6] Pmalloc: self-test Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
2018-01-24 17:56 ` Igor Stoppa
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